The weight of goldwork embroidery usually requires the use of two layers of fabric. For the 61 oldest pieces in my database, the top layer is mostly some form of silk fabric (n=47) or linen (n=13). Whenever identified, plain-weave, samite and silk twill are the silk fabrics of choice. The bottom layer would have been coarser linen[1]. Whereas linen was imported from France and the Low Countries, silks came from further East until the development of silk weaving manufactures in Italy and Spain (see lesson 3).

Underside couching requires a sturdy two-ply linen thread and metal threads—the composition of the latter changes with time. For the earliest threads, strips of near-pure gold foil were wrapped around a silk core. Their latest use is probably on the Hólar vestments kept at the National Museum of Iceland (made AD 1200-1260). Later threads are made of a strip of gilt silver foil around a core of silk (Monnas, 2016).

As needles are very fine, they are rare in the archaeological record. But even with very careful digging, the fact that they were made of metal (iron) means that they don’t survive well in most soils. The same holds true for the smaller sharp shears we would now recognise as the perfect pair of scissors for embroidery. Extensive digging in London, a centre of medieval embroidery production (Hourihane, 2016), only produced a few such scissors from the 13^th-15^th centuries.

Probable needlecases survived a little better. Especially as they were not only made of metal but more often from bone or ivory. In London, they date from the 12^th-14^th centuries. One particular needlecase made from copper contained a very fine iron needle suitable for silk embroidery (Museum of London, mus. no. BWB83 [399] <367>) (Browne et al., 2016).

Thimbles are also much better survivors. You can read an interesting article on the history of the steel needle according to the finds of thimbles on Dr Alexandra Makin-Lester’s blog.

Naturally, we know precious little about the makers of the earliest goldwork embroideries in England. They stem from a period of increased urbanisation, which offered new entrepreneurial opportunities for women. From the written sources, we know that it was women who ran independent embroidery businesses by the 9th century. Liveva and Ingrid probably worked for the monks at Ely, Alderet’s wife worked in Winchester for Queen Matilda, and Ælfgyth worked in Buckinghamshire, according to the Doomsday Book. To produce such fine works as the Cuthbert embroideries, a system of apprenticeship likely existed in these embroidery workshops (Lester-Makin, 2019).

[1] This layer is not always mentioned in the literature.